·综述·
孕妇肥胖问题随经济社会发展而日益凸出。不同收入水平国家肥胖孕妇人数均呈增加趋势,中低收入国家增速尤为显著。中国增速位居全球第二,仅次于印度[1]。2014年全球肥胖孕妇1 460万,其中429万(29.4%)来自中国[1]。中国孕妇基数大、肥胖率增速快,孕妇肥胖问题值得关注。
孕妇肥胖的主要原因为孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度。世界卫生组织将体重指数(body mass index,BMI)介于25.0~29.9 kg/m2和≥30.0 kg/m2分别定义为超重和肥胖,而中国相应的标准为24.0~27.9 kg/m2和≥28.0 kg/m2。2015年美国[2]和巴西[3]约一半孕妇为孕前超重或肥胖,2014年中国约为四分之一[4]。孕期增重主要与胎儿、胎盘、羊水、增大的子宫和乳房、增加的血容量和脂肪有关。2009年美国国家医学研究院(the National Academy of Medicine)发布孕期增重推荐范围[5],孕期增重超过推荐范围上限即为孕期增重过度。孕期增重过度现象较为普遍,2017年全球每百名孕妇中就有孕期增重过度者47名[6],中国每百名孕妇中有孕期增重过度者37名[7]。孕前BMI愈高,孕期增重推荐值愈低,孕期增重过度愈易发生[8]。
适宜的孕前BMI和孕期增重对胎儿正常生长发育和母亲产后哺乳具有重要意义。孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度可改变宫内暴露环境,增加不良妊娠结局发生风险[9],甚至影响子代近远期健康[10]。在中国生育政策渐次宽松背景下,非常有必要及时梳理孕妇肥胖对子代健康的影响,了解局限性并明确后续工作方向,为科学研究提供线索、为卫生决策提供参考。
孕妇肥胖影响子代健康,如肥胖、代谢综合征及心脑血管疾病、哮喘等过敏性疾病、自闭症、认知及神经系统发育异常、癌症等。
1.肥胖:儿童肥胖是许多国家的重要公共卫生问题,2015年全球儿童肥胖人数高达1.08亿[11]。2014年发表的两篇系统综述显示,与孕期增重适中孕妇相比,增重过度者子代在2~19岁时BMI-Z评分增加0.74~1.73[12]、肥胖风险增加40%[13],且孕早中期增重过度的影响更明显[12]。希腊、荷兰、中国的出生队列研究也显示,孕早中期而非孕晚期增重过度显著影响子代肥胖[14-16]。2019年发表的系统综述纳入了澳大利亚、欧洲和北美洲相关出生队列的个案资料(n=162 129)[17],结果显示,孕期增重过度对子代的影响随子代年龄而增加,如5岁前、5~10岁和10~18岁子代超重与肥胖的风险依次增加39%、55%和72%;结果还显示孕前BMI显著影响子代肥胖且随子代年龄而增强:与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,孕前超重者子代在5岁前、5~10岁和10~18岁的超重与肥胖风险依次增加66%、91%和128%,孕前肥胖者子代的风险更高,依次为143%、212%和347%。澳大利亚和荷兰的研究也显示孕前肥胖对子代肥胖的影响随子代年龄而增强[18-19]。影响随子代年龄增强的现象或与母亲生活方式代际传递效应逐渐显现有关[17]。上述证据也提示孕前肥胖对子代肥胖的影响程度可能强于孕期增重过度。
2.代谢综合征和心脑血管疾病:代谢综合征和心脑血管疾病是残疾和死亡的主要原因。2010年英国队列研究显示,孕前体重与子代9岁时的腰围、体脂率、收缩压和舒张压等多项代谢综合征或心脑血管疾病相关指标正关联;孕期增重与子代腰围、体脂率、甘油三酯、收缩压、C-反应蛋白、白细胞介素等指标正关联,与高密度脂蛋白胆固醇和载脂蛋白A1水平负关联[20]。2014年荷兰队列研究显示,孕前BMI与子代6岁时体脂率和收缩压正关联,且孕前肥胖者子代发生3个及以上指标异常的风险是体重正常者的3倍[21]。2016年英国一项随访近60年的队列研究显示,孕期增重速率超0.9 千克/周者的子代脑血管疾病的发病风险增加1.7倍[22]。研究提示,孕早期增重与子代相关指标的关联更强[14-15,20,23],且孕前肥胖的影响可能强于孕期增重过度[14,23],如孕前BMI和孕期增重速率每增加1个标准差,子代多指标异常的风险分别增加63%和23%[23]。子代肥胖可能是上述关联通路的中间环节,即孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度增加子代肥胖风险继而增加心脑血管疾病风险[20-21]。
3.Ⅰ型糖尿病:I型糖尿病是儿童青少年常见的慢性疾病,全球不满20岁的患者约111万[24]。英国病例对照研究显示,孕期增重过度增加子代I型糖尿病的发病风险[25],但瑞典病例对照研究显示,孕前肥胖而非孕期增重过度增加该病风险:与非肥胖孕妇相比,肥胖者子代到18岁时患I型糖尿病的风险增加18%[26]。2015年瑞典大样本队列研究(n=1 263 358)显示,与孕早期体重正常的孕妇相比,超重和肥胖者子代患I型糖尿病的风险分别增加25%和67%[27]。2018年挪威和丹麦出生队列研究也显示,孕前肥胖增加子代11~16岁时I型糖尿病的发病风险,而未见孕期增重与该病的关联[28]。2020年发表的系统综述显示,孕前BMI与子代空腹胰岛素水平正关联,但孕期增重则无关联[29]。总之,孕期增重过度与子代I型糖尿病关联的证据不足,但孕前或孕早期肥胖则可能增加子代该病风险。
4.哮喘等过敏性疾病:哮喘是儿童常见的过敏性疾病之一,2010年美国受累儿童约700万[30],中国也超500万[31]。2014年发表的系统综述显示,与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,肥胖者子代在14月龄至16岁期间罹患哮喘或喘鸣的风险增加31%,且孕前BMI 每增加一个单位子代哮喘或喘鸣风险增加2%~3%;与孕期增重适中者相比,增重过度者子代哮喘或喘鸣风险增加16%[32]。2020年发表的系统综述显示,与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,超重或肥胖者子代哮喘风险增加41%、喘鸣风险增加13%,且孕前BMI每增加1个单位子代哮喘或喘鸣风险增加3%;与孕期增重适中者相比,增重过度者子代哮喘或喘鸣风险增加12%~24%[33]。此外,孕期增重过度可能增加子代其他过敏性疾病的发病风险。2019年中国前瞻性队列研究显示,孕期增重过度者子代3~14岁时患过敏性鼻炎的风险增加11%、皮肤湿疹的风险增加10%;且在孕前超重或肥胖孕妇中孕期增重过度的影响更强,如子代过敏性鼻炎和皮肤湿疹的风险分别增加32%和24%[34]。2021年发表的系统综述显示,孕期增重过度增加子代过敏性皮炎发病风险,未见孕前BMI的关联[35]。总之,孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度均可能增加子代哮喘发病风险,且孕期增重过度还可能增加子代过敏性鼻炎、皮肤湿疹等其他过敏性疾病的发病风险。
5.自闭症:自闭症是在儿童早期发生的神经精神发育障碍性疾病,主要临床表现为社会交往障碍、语言发育障碍和重复刻板行为[36]。美国3~17岁儿童自闭症发生率约2.5%[37],而中国仅0.3%(可能被严重低估) [38]。2015年瑞典队列研究显示,与孕早期体重正常孕妇相比,超重和肥胖者子代自闭症发病风险分别增加31%和94%;与孕期增重适中孕妇相比,增重过度者子代自闭症发病风险增加23%;在匹配同胞、控制遗传和家庭因素后,孕早期BMI与子代自闭症不再关联,但孕期增重过度仍使子代自闭症发病风险增加48%[39]。2018年中国病例对照研究也显示,孕前BMI与子代自闭症无关联,但孕期增重过度可增加该病风险[40]。2020年发表的系统综述分别总结了4项病例对照研究和5项队列研究:病例对照研究的综合结果显示,孕期增重过度使子代自闭症发病风险增加38%,队列研究则显示子代自闭症发病风险增加10%[41]。总之,孕前肥胖与子代自闭症关联的相关数据尚待完善,但孕期增重过度可能增加子代该病的发病风险。
6.认知及神经系统发育异常:孕期营养影响子代脑组织和认知功能发育。1982年美国一项研究显示,与孕期增重不足13 kg的孕妇相比,增重超过13 kg者子代5岁时的认知水平偏低[42]。2013年英国前瞻队列研究显示,孕前体重愈高,子代认知功能相关指标如4岁时入学成绩、8岁时智商和16岁时期末成绩愈差,而孕期增重可能与子代认知功能正关联[43]。2018年发表的系统综述显示,与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,超重和肥胖者子代出现神经发育问题的风险分别增加17%和51%[44]。2020年发表的系统综述显示,孕前超重和肥胖者子代发生注意力不集中症(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder)的风险分别增加31%和92%[45]。同年另一篇系统综述显示,孕期增重过度与子代智商的正关联程度较弱,且与子代语言和数学能力无关联[46]。总之,孕前肥胖可能影响子代认知与神经系统发育,而孕期增重的相关数据尚待丰富。
7.癌症及其他:儿童癌症发病率较低、病死率较高,是儿童死亡的主要原因之一。有关孕前肥胖、孕期增重过度与子代癌症的关联研究较少。2016年美国一项基于加利福尼亚州癌症登记系统开展的病例对照研究显示,与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,超重者子代白血病风险增加27%;与孕期增重适中孕妇相比,增重过度者子代星形细胞瘤风险增加56%[47]。2019年美国另一项基于宾夕法尼亚州癌症登记系统开展的大规模前瞻性队列研究(n=1 827 875)显示,与孕前体重正常孕妇相比,重度肥胖者(BMI>40 kg/m2)子代癌症风险增加32%、白血病风险增加57%;与孕期增重不足5 kg的孕妇相比,孕期增重超过30 kg者的子代神经母细胞瘤风险增加107%[48]。孕妇肥胖可能还影响子代其他健康结局,虽然相关证据尚待丰富。如2020年笔者开展出生队列研究显示,与孕早期体重正常孕妇相比,肥胖者子代6月龄贫血风险增加39%[49];与孕中晚期增重速率适中者相比,增重速率过快者子代6月龄和12月龄贫血风险分别增加20%和43%[50]。
综上所述,孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度影响子代健康。二者均可能增加子代肥胖、代谢综合征、心脑血管疾病、哮喘、癌症、贫血的发病风险。孕前肥胖与子代肥胖、代谢综合征、心脑血管疾病、I型糖尿病、认知和神经系统发育的关联更密切,而孕期增重过度与子代过敏性鼻炎、皮肤湿疹、自闭症的关联更密切。
孕前肥胖、孕期增重过度影响子代健康的机制尚不清楚,可能涉及宫内暴露、基因遗传、家庭环境和生活方式代际传递等因素。首先,生命早期宫内暴露影响子代健康。肥胖孕妇的子宫内环境可能不同于非肥胖者,肥胖孕妇的胎儿更易暴露于葡萄糖和脂肪酸,适宜水平的葡萄糖和脂肪酸有益于胎儿脑组织发育,但过度暴露则影响胎儿脂肪组织发育、增加胎儿脂肪细胞生成能力和出生后对脂肪的存储能力[51];过度暴露还可影响下丘脑和胰腺小岛细胞的发育,增加出生后肥胖和I型糖尿病的发病风险[52]。其次,孕妇肥胖可影响母体胰岛素和胰岛素样生长因子水平,增加子代肥胖乃至癌症的发生风险[53]。第三,肥胖属于慢性低度炎症反应,促炎指标如白介素6、肿瘤坏死因子α等水平明显升高[54],而母体炎症反应与子代喘鸣[55]、神经系统发育异常[56]、I型糖尿病[57]等有关联。第四,孕妇肥胖影响子代肠道菌群,继而影响子代健康[58]。第五,孕妇肥胖可致基因多态性或表观基因改变,影响子代哮喘、癌症等疾病的发病风险[32,47]。此外,基因遗传以及家庭环境因素和生活方式的代际传递影响子代健康,如肥胖孕妇的肥胖易感性遗传子代[13]、不健康膳食或生活方式(如高热量、高脂肪、少运动)传递子代[59],进而影响子代健康。
首先,暴露评价亟待精准。定义孕前肥胖多采用孕前BMI,而孕前BMI在群体层面的预测性较好,对个体的预测准确性有待改进。宜同时考虑其他肥胖评价指标,如腰围、腰臀比和体脂率等。孕期增重多采用孕期总增重,但孕期增重对子代健康的影响因妊娠时期而异[15],可考虑细化孕期增重为孕早、中、晚期增重。孕前BMI和孕期增重相关信息多为孕产妇自我报告,回忆偏倚和暴露错分不可避免,影响暴露评价的准确性。其次,需综合评价社会经济地位、膳食模式、生活方式等因素对因果链的影响。采用同胞对照有益于控制这些混杂因素[39],但仍有局限性,如混杂因素可能会随时间推移而发生变化,一般而言,同胞对照使结果趋于保守[60]。第三,孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度影响子代健康的机制机理尚不清楚。相关研究主要基于动物实验或小样本人群研究,亟待深化。第四,既往研究多来自发达国家,如2020年关于I型糖尿病的系统综述纳入的15篇原始研究中有14篇来自发达国家[29],而关于认知功能的7篇原始研究则全部来自发达国家[46]。目前发展中国家孕前肥胖和孕期增重过度问题不容忽视,宜加强相关研究。
中国孕妇基数大,孕前肥胖与孕期增重过度问题并存。孕妇肥胖影响子代健康,相关部门宜予以重视,开展健康教育、强化孕前孕期营养指导,推进科学研究工作。肥胖孕妇的时空分布特征、孕妇肥胖与母子健康、孕期增重适宜范围、孕妇肥胖的干预策略等是人群研究的主要内容。尤其在出生人口规模减少和生育政策渐次宽松背景下,积极开展系列研究不仅具有重要公共卫生价值,而且对保障国家人口持续健康发展也具有重要意义。
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